What Actions did African Americans Take to Overcome Their Problems?
(Answered by Ally Carroll and Jared Shaw)
Over time, African Americans took many different actions to overcome their adversities and finally be seen as equal as the whites who were discriminating against them. It was seen early during slavery with a variety of different slave revolts such as the very early (1739) Stono Rebellion where slaves in South Carolina planned to escape to freedom. Slave rebellions like Gabriel's Rebellion (1800) and the Nat Turner Rebellion (1831) were both failures but ended up motivating African Americans to fight back against slavery because more and more slave rebellions happened after that. In the time before the Civil War in 1861, the Underground Railroad in place to help slaves escape to freedom through a series of safe houses and codes that lead them across the Canadian boarder. This was an action that was taken by African Americans to go against slavery and escape to freedom. The Underground Railroad was set up and run by freed slaves such as Harriet Tubman and was a very important action that helped many slaves escape to a better life.
After the civil war with the creation of the Freedmen's Bureau, which was created to help freed African Americans, African Americans felt more confident in their ability to have the same rights as whites and began to fight even more for them. With the backing of the Freedmen's Bureau African Americans fought for the rejection of gang-labor which was similar to slave labor. This backing of the Freedmen's Bureau gave them the confidence they needed to continue to fight for civil rights. Even though slaves had been freed in 1863 African Americans still were not considered "equal" to whites and they still had to fight against discrimination. African Americans soon began to realize the power they could have and how if they fought for it, they would be able to end discrimination. Booker T. Washington and W.E.B DuBois were very important in the sense that they carried the fight for civil rights into the twentieth century with a difference in opinions but a shared goal: equality. The two men went about it in different ways, Washington wanting to accommodate to the white population to gain over time their trust and support, and DuBois demanding equal rights as soon as possible. In What African Americans Want by W.E.B Dubois, he states: "The history of the American Negro is the history of this strife, this longing to attain self-conscious manhood, to merge his double self into a better and truer self ... This, then, is the end of his striving: to be a co-worker in the kingdom of culture, to escape both death and isolation, to husband and use his best powers and his latent genius." He is explaining how changes must be made and in this document he further explains how he can see those changes happening. This set a basis for how the twentieth century would deal with the issue with civil rights. People went about it differently but all African Americans wanted the same goal and that was equality. One of the most prominent actions that was carried out by African Americans in the 1900s was the organization of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909. This organization has been the most influential of the civil rights organizations in the United States since it's formation. The main goal of this organization is to guarantee true equality to all citizens of the United States by fighting racial discrimination in all aspects of life. The first major issue that the NAACP helped to resolve was lynching. The NAACP consistently was pushing Congress to pass antilynching legislation starting in 1919. Even though Congress never actually passed the legislation that was desired by the NAACP, the publicity of the crime by the NAACP helped end it. Of all the things that the NAACP did, the most impressive thing is how they utilized the Supreme Court to find unconstitutionality in many aspects of the United States that were racially discriminatory. For example, in the 1915 case Guinn v. United States, the NAACP challenged that the Oklahoma "grandfather clause" was unconstitutional. The Supreme Court ended up ruling that this clause was violating the Fifteenth Amendment. This case here gave the NAACP its first victory in the legal system, marking an important stepping stone for the organization. The NAACP also played a large role in the World War 2 Era and the Postwar Era. For example, the NAACP fought for equal treatment for blacks in the military as well as in the work force that was involved in the war industry. The effects of this can be seen in President Truman's executive order that banned segregation in the armed forces. As time goes on past World War 2, the NAACP remains relevant in the legal system. In 1954, the NAACP had it's most prominent victory in court, this being in the case of Brown v. Board of Education. This case ended segregation in public educational facilities. This was very important because this case overturned the Plessy v. Ferguson case, which was the case that determined that separate but equal educational facilities were constitutional. Obviously in the Brown v. Board of Education case, this separate but equal concept was found unconstitutional. The NAACP played a large role during the civil rights era as well, organizing protests such as the Oklahoma City "sit down" strategy in which African Americans would sit down in restaurants where they were refused service in order to protest segregation. The NAACP also helped universities desegregate during the civil rights era such as the University of Florida, the University of Georgia, and the University of Mississippi. With all the work and publicity that the NAACP brought, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed by Congress. The NAACP was not the only organization that was formed in order to combat racial discrimination. Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. was also responsible for many actions taken by the African Americans such as the Montgomery Bus Boycott, many other non-violent protests, and speeches such as the "I Have a Dream" speech that King gave at the Lincoln Memorial. Another organization that tried to help the African Americans during the civil rights era was the Black Panther Party. This organization called for Black Power and didn't just want to exist just for pleasing whites but for pleasing themselves. They didn't see why whites should have any rights that African Americans didn't have and they made sure to vocalize this. This group took a more militant attitude, demanding rights instead of holding peaceful protests for rights. These are just a few of the many actions taken by African Americans throughout history in an attempt to become equal with whites and to end the discrimination that gave them so many problems and struggles. Annotated Bibliography for this Question Booker T. Washington vs W.E.B. DuBois. YouTube. Web. 2 Apr. 2015. Booker T. Washington. Photos/Illustrations. Britannica. Web. 2 Apr. 2015. Carmichael, Stokely. "Black Power." Britannica Annals of American History. N.p., 1966. Web. 30 Mar. 2015. This source gave a background on the idea of black power and the Black Panther Party, a more militant civil rights group. "Gabriel's Rebellion." American History. ABC-CLIO, 2015. Web. 15 Mar. 2015. Describes the events of Gabriel's Rebellion and provides details that help gain an understanding of what exactly went on and the events that led up to it. "National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)." U.S. History in Context. Encyclopedia of African-American Culture and History, 2006. Web. 24 Feb. 2015. This source gave a lot of information on the NAACP. This included the time periods such as the early 1900s, the World War 2 Era, and the Civil Rights Era. "Stono Rebellion." American History. ABC-CLIO, 2015. Web. 10 Mar. 2015. Goes in depth to explain all of the surrounding events of the Stono Rebellion. "Nat Turner." American History. ABC-CLIO, 2015. Web. 16 Mar. 2015. Describes Nat Turner's life which provides an understanding of why there was the Nat Turner rebellion and how everything happened surrounding it. "Underground Railroad." American History. ABC-CLIO, 2015. Web. 15 Mar. 2015. Provides a brief explanation and gives a rough date for when it happened which helps to put it in position with other events of the time. "Underground Railroad." Photos/Illustrations. Library of Congress. American History. ABC-CLIO, 2015. Web. 8 Mar. 2015. W.E.B. Dubois. Photos/Illustrations. Web. 3 Apr. 2015 "W.E.B. Du Bois: What African Americans Want (1903)." Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Mar. 2015. Shows how W.E.B DuBois plans on changing America and describes how exactly he wants African Americans to gain their equality with white Americans. |
|
What Actions Were Taken on Behalf of this Group by State or Federal Governments and/or Voluntary Associations?
(Answered by Andrew Sopchak)
The first critically important actions taken on behalf of African Americans by voluntary associations were those of the American Anti-Slavery Society and abolitionists, most notably, William Lloyd Garrison. For the first time, Abolitionists had assembled into a large, diverse group that unapologetically demanded the immediate abolition of slavery. At its first convention in 1833, Garrison drafted the Declaration of the American Anti-Slavery Society, which outlined the group's intent to propagate the cause of abolition by all possible means throughout society. Garrison published the Liberator, which was most influential in the dissemination of vehement anti-slavery sentiments.
The remainder of antebellum period was characterized by relative inaction on the part of the country's political class, who were extremely hesitant to address the issue of slavery from fear of loosing political support and further dividing the nation along the lines of that institution. At the same time, militant abolitionism grew as John Brown and others forcefully resisted the expansion of slavery into western territories, most notably Kansas. The sectionalism between the North and South grew steadily stronger and the rise of violent conflict over the issue of slavery were harbingers of a colossal conflict that would change the United States in almost every respect, and in particular, the political status and rights of African Americans.
Perhaps the most famous wartime measure taken by the unionist government was the Emancipation Proclamation, issued unilaterally by Abraham Lincoln in 1863. Lincoln sought to weaken the Confederacy by reducing its source of forced labor and so issued the Proclamation, declaring enslaved persons in the territory under Confederate control free. Lincoln thereby abandoned other tactics to preserve the Union short of emancipation. Following the Union victory in the Civil War, numerous legal measure were taken on behalf of African Americans. Republican control of government meant little opposition to the extension of rights to African Americans. Firstly, the Republican dominated Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866 over the veto of President Johnson. This act granted citizenship to African Americans and demonstrated the resolve of Congress to take a strong stance in favor of African American rights and to assert its control over the reconstruction process. Perhaps the most important legal outcomes of the Civil War are, however, codified in the Civil War amendments to the Constitution. Amendment XIII (ratified 12/18/1865) legally ended slavery and involuntary servitude, freeing African Americans from slavery. Amendment XIV (Ratified 7/28/1868) granted citizenship to African Americans. Amendment XV (ratified 3/30/1870) granted legally the right to vote to all citizens of the United States. These amendments represent the most dramatic and positive legal change in the status African Americans the nineteenth century. What is more, the Republican controlled Congress passed the Freedmen's Bureau Bill over Andrew Johnson's presidential veto in July of 1866. The Bill created the Freedmen's Bureau, whose purpose was to improve the economic conditions of the new population of freedmen.
After the end of Reconstruction, very little was done on behalf of African Americans by governments. The next few decades saw the augmentation of state enforced segregation and various other laws particularly in the South that limited the flourishing of African Americans. After the Second World War, however, President Truman established a committee to investigate the racial environment in the armed forces. Ultimately, Truman desegregated the armed forces. This was the first of many Federal measures aimed at strengthening the conditions of African Americans that would be taken in the next few decades.
The critical catalyst for the Civil Rights Movement came in the form of a Supreme Court ruling in 1954; in Brown et al. v. Board of Education of Topeka et al., the Court unanimously overturned the doctrine of Separate but Equal, which had been established in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896). Despite this ruling, the integration of education was resisted strongly in the South. In 1957, hordes of segregationists prevented African American students from entering a Little Rock high school. President Eisenhower responded by sending in federal marshals and taking command of the Arkansas Guard, thus permitting the students to attend the school. In 1964, President Lyndon Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law. The Act outlawed discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, and national origin, and outlawed racial segregation in schools. The next year, the Voting Rights Act of 1965 was signed into law. The Law enfranchised many African Americans by eliminating barriers to voting such as the poll tax.
"Civil Rights Act". Annals of American History. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2015. Web. 3 Mar. 2015. This provided information about the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the debate over its constitutionality.
"Civil War Amendments to the Constitution" Annals of American History. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2015. Web. 6 Jan. 2015. This provided information about the Civil War Amendments.
"Declaration of the American Anti-Slavery Society". Annals of American History. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2015. Web. 3 Mar. 2015. This provided information about the intentions and actions of the American Anti-Slavery Society and its most prominent member, William Lloyd Garrison.
Eisenhower, Dwight D. "The Little Rock School Crisis" . Annals of American History. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2015. Web. 3 Mar. 2015. This provided information about the Little Rock School Crisis and described Eisenhower's roll.
Garrison, William Lloyd. "For Immediate Abolition". Annals of American History. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2015. Web. 6 Jan. 2015. This provided information about the movement for abolition.
Johnson, Andrew. "Veto of Freedmen's Bureau Bill". Annals of American History. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2015. Web. 3 Mar. 2015. This provided information about the Freedmen's Bureau and the politics of its origin.
Lincoln, Abraham. "Emancipation Proclamation". Annals of American History. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2015. Web. 3 Mar. 2015. This provided information about the Emancipation Proclamation and the context of its being proclaimed.
Truman, Harry S. "Desegregation of the Armed Forces". Annals of American History. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2015. Web. 15 Mar. 2015.This provided information about the desegregation of the Armed Forces.
Warren, Earl. "Brown et al. v. Board of Education of Topeka et al.". Annals of American History. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2015. Web. 27 Feb. 2015. This provided information about Brown v. Board and its implications for the segregation of schools.